Shapur I's third Roman campaign
Shapur I's third Roman campaign was the last of the three victorious campaigns that the Persian king Shapur I led against the Roman Empire in 240–244, 252–256 and 260. This campaign took place as part of the Roman–Persian wars, an escalation of the Roman–Parthian Wars.
Background
Valerian arrived in the East in late 253 or early 254 and immediately began a program of rebuilding the sacked and destroyed cities and forts, reorganized the army, and reconciled the population to Roman rule. Shapur I did not lead any expeditions at this time, but it is not difficult to assume that he was informed of repeated raids by Goths and Sarmatians in Anatolia to the point of preparing a new expedition. Information about the period between 253 and 259 and 260 is scarce and confused, but it is imagined that Shapur I made a new offensive in 256, which was repelled by Valerian. This assumption is based on the emperor's use of the title Parthian (a title of victory) on his coins of 257. Such use may signify a partial victory, perhaps somewhere in the middle Euphrates. There is evidence that Dura was one of the cities attacked at this time.
Michael I. Rostovtzeff, maintaining the view that Dura was attacked by Shapur on two occasions, in 253 (according to the Shah's inscription) and 256 (according to evidence found at the site in relation to available literary information), created an explanatory framework that combines information obtained from literary evidence with archaeological and numismatic evidence. According to him, a likely reason for the city being attacked twice by the Persians was its abandonment after 253 due to pressure exerted by Odenathus. Archaeology indicates that between the years 253-256, the city experienced a period of relative peace, with material evidence from the period demonstrating that it maintained contact both with Roman Syria (presence of imperial coins from the period), of which it was a part, and with the Sasanian Empire (Pahlavi inscriptions in the local synagogue and green glazed two-handled vessels of Persian manufacture).
In a private house in Dura, an unfinished colored drawing was found that occupies almost the entire surface of one of the walls of the divan in that residence. According to Rostovtzeff's interpretation, it depicts, according to the convention of early Sasanian artists, a battle scene in which a Shah and his enemy appear on one side (large-scale figure) and members of the Sasanian royal family subduing Roman knights (smaller figures) on the other, all in the presence of gods seated in an armchair. It has an explanatory inscription in Pahlavi and, according to the author's view, represents a historical battle. The work would have been begun with the Persian occupation of 253, but remained incomplete with the Roman reoccupation around the same time. Rostovtzeff advances this supposition by presenting another drawing, of Palmyrene influence, found in the office of the actuary of the XX Palmyrene Cohort in one of the rooms surrounding the courtyard of the Temple of Azanatcona, for him evidence of the reoccupation.
The Palmyrene drawing depicts a Roman officer, possibly the commander of the 20th Palmyrene Cohort, sacrificing to the god Jaribol (Sol Invictus), whose statue, crowned by a Nike and an eagle, is shown standing on a stepped base (on which there are painted dedicatory inscriptions) in the center of the composition. The officer is to the left of the statue, and behind him is a knight advancing slowly to the right. He is wearing Palmyrene parade attire and is seated on a large Palmyrene or Durenus-type horse with typical Palmyrene armor. In front of the knight is a young man or boy with a palm branch and perhaps a wreath of flowers in his hands, and under the horse's feet are circles, which probably represent gold coins thrown before it, a celebrated salute. Rostovtzeff proposed that the drawing celebrates a victory of Odenathus over the Persians, a victory that was of great importance to Dura and its garrison, and that he associates it with the episode narrated by John Malalas. It is likely that on his way back down the Euphrates, Odenathus passed through Dura and was praised as the savior and liberator of the Roman garrison (XX Palmyrene Cohort) that had just returned to Dura.
Campaign
thumb|left|upright=1.05|Shapur I capturing Valerian and receiving the submission of Philip the Arab. Rock relief at Naqsh-e Rostam. thumb|left|upright=1.05|A sardonyx cameo depicting Shapur I and Valerian, . thumb|left|upright=1.05|Illumination from the Shahnameh depicting Shapur I and Valerian.
Repeated skirmishes led to another major conflict in 259/260. The main episode of this campaign was the capture of Valerian, although the manner in which this occurred has been variously described. The Paschal Chronicle states that he was killed, while Aurelius Victor says that he was captured by a trick of Shapur I and was ignominiously cut down by the Shah until death. Agathias, describing Shapur I as very wicked and bloodthirsty, said that after killing Valerian he invaded Mesopotamia and then sacked Cilicia, Syria and Cappadocia, causing great massacre; he also stated that the valleys and cavities of the mountain trees were filled with the bodies of the victims and that the Shah leveled the spaces between the hills and flattened their projecting domes. Agathias, describing Shapur as very wicked and bloodthirsty, said that after killing Valerian he invaded Mesopotamia and then sacked Cilicia, Syria and Cappadocia, causing great massacre; he also stated that the valleys and cavities of the mountain trees were filled with the bodies of the victims and that the Shah leveled the spaces between the hills and flattened their projecting domes.
According to Zosimus, Shapur attacked Syria and Cappadocia and besieged Edessa, where Valerian was. The emperor hesitated to confront him, but was compelled to do so upon noticing the agitation of his forces. The Romans were overwhelmed by the Persians, and Valerian and his entourage were captured and taken to Persia. The same author also states that, according to some authors whose names he does not cite, Valerian surrendered to the Persians after noticing that his men were about to mutiny in Edessa; regardless of the version, he claims that Shapur treated the emperor dishonorably. Zosimus also states that, after capturing Valerian, the Persians freely attacked Roman cities, taking Antioch, Tarsus, and Caesarea. The multitude of captured prisoners allegedly received only the bare minimum of food to survive and were taken to water once a day like cattle. Of the cities attacked, it is known that Caesarea offered strong resistance under the leadership of Demosthenes. He was able to repel the Persians until a certain doctor of uncertain name was captured and tortured until he revealed a means for the Persians to invade. Despite the fall of the city, Zosimus states that Demosthenes was able to escape amidst the enemy ranks.
Festus, Eutropius, Eusebius of Caesarea, the Epitome de Caesaribus, and Jerome agree that Valerian was captured and lived the rest of his days in servitude. According to Tabari, after being captured, Shapur I settled him in Bendosabora. According to one author, Valerian was forced to work on the construction of Caesar's Dam (Band-e Qeyṣar) in Xustar, which was said to be a thousand cubits wide. The emperor built it with the help of a group of men brought from Anatolia under the promise that Shapur would release him upon completion of the work. Tabari reports that there are two versions of this episode, the first stating that Valerian paid Shapur a large financial compensation and was released after having his nose cut off, and the second stating that he was killed. According to the Historia Augusta, the king of kings Velsolo, the king of the Cadusians Veluno, and the Armenian king Artavasdes, all allies of Shapur, sent him letters asking him to return Valerian for fear of Roman retaliation, while the Bactrians, Iberians, and Taurocytes refused to receive letters from the Shah and sent letters to Roman officials promising help to free Valerian from captivity. Orosius and Lactantius state that Valerian was always forced to crouch before Shapur so that he could step on his back to mount his horse. According to Lactantius, Shapur allegedly said upon stepping on Valerian that "This is the truth, and not what the Romans described on their tablets and walls." George Cedrenus states that Valerian was flayed and died, while Lactantius describes:
thumb|upright=1.05|Drawing by Hans Holbein the Younger, 1521, depicting Shapur I humiliating Valerian. thumb|upright=1.05|Parisian illumination, , depicting Shapur I mounting his horse while using Valerian as a footstool. thumb|upright=1.05|Route of Shapur I's third campaign.
According to Philostratus of Athens, quoted by John Malalas, the Shah, after having subjugated and burned all of Syria, "burned" Cilicia and returned through Cappadocia. According to Sapor, "And in the third campaign, we besieged Carrhae and Edessa, and when we were besieging them, Valerian Caesar came against us, and with him was a force [later specified as totaling 70,000 men] from [most] the provinces (hštr) [almost all the provinces are mentioned]. And west of Carrhae and Edessa a great battle took place between us and Valerian Caesar. With our own hands, we took Valerian Caesar prisoner, the other leaders of that army, the Praetorian Prefect and senators; we took them all prisoner and deported them to Persia. And we burned, devastated, took captive and conquered the provinces of Syria, Cilicia and Cappadocia." Next, it lists all the subjugated cities:
The list of captured cities, with the exception of Alexandretta (Alexandria on the Issus) and Nicopolis, are located in Anatolia, and Rostovtzeff suggests that Shapur deliberately avoided mentioning the captured cities in his second campaign, perhaps indicating that the Persians never lost control of them. Be that as it may, the first city to be attacked after Valerian's defeat was Samosata (modern-day Samessate), an important center of the ancient Kingdom of Commagene and a confluence of trade routes. Shapur's decision to subdue it first may be based on the fact that Valerian stationed his reserves there. From there, the main army must have moved to Antioch, from where they attacked Alexandria on the Issus. Next, Shapur led his army to the Cilician coast at Catabolus, a city whose location is unknown but is thought to be near modern-day Burnaz, and marched to Tarsus. On the way, he captured several cities in the Cilician Countryside: Aegean (modern Yumurtalık), Mopsuestia, Malo, a colony whose location is unknown, the island city of Adana, and Augusta or Augustina, possibly a colony.
They then captured Zephyrion (modern Mersin) and must have moved further west, capturing Sebaste, a colony and important naval station, and Coricus, a city in Cilicia Aspera. According to Zonaras, part of the enemy army fell victim to a naval attack led by Callixtus at Pompeopolis (Solos), a coastal settlement west of Zephyrion, and given this defeat it is possible that the Persians abandoned Sebaste and Coricus. After the setback, the main army, perhaps under Shapur, went to Eastern Cilicia and captured six cities: Anazarbus, Hierapolis Castabala, Neronias (possibly the future Irenopolis), Flaviae (modern Cadirli), Nicopolis and Epiphanea. The following six cities, all on the coast of Cilicia Aspera (later called Isauria), placed in this order, do not fit the logical order of the movement of Shapur's army. It has been proposed, similarly to what was established for the list of the second campaign, that these cities were an appendix to cities conquered by another army, perhaps an advance guard that advanced beyond Sebaste before the Roman counter-attack at Pompeopolis or a rearguard that remained at Sebaste after Shapur withdrew with the main army. This army went as far as Calenderis (modern Aydıncık) and Anemurium (modern Anamur) and reached Selinus (modern Gazipaşa), the westernmost point reached by any force under Shapur. Then it split into two groups to attack on its return the coastal cities that had been overlooked; One attacked Myonpolis, a city of uncertain location, and the other Antioch of Crago before returning via Seleucia on the Calicadnus (modern Silifke). Domeciopolis, in Cilicia Aspera, was possibly captured by the Seleucia group.
Shapur I's main force, after withdrawing, marched to the important Tiana (modern Kemerhisar) in Cappadocia. There, it split into two groups, one advancing deep into Cappadocia to Lesser Armenia and the other advancing westward to Lycaonia. The first group captured Caesarea, probably after heavy fighting. From Caesarea, a smaller group attacked Comana (modern Şar) and advanced north as far as Sebasteia (modern Sivas) on the Halys River. The second group marched southwest from Tiana to Cybistra, then Birta (Barata?) and Racundia, a city or settlement of uncertain identification. A subsidiary force must have advanced from Cybistra to Laranda (modern Karamania), while a larger group advanced to Iconium (modern Konya).
Aftermath
thumb|upright=1.05|Dinar of Shapur I, . thumb|left|upright=1.05|Mosaic depicting Odaenathus fighting the Persians (represented as tigers), Palmyra. thumb|left|upright=1.05|Tessera depicting .
When the Persian army spread too far inland into Roman territory and lost its cohesion, Shapur I evacuated the devastated territories and marched into Persia with booty and numerous captives. He marched through Eastern Cilicia and Northern Mesopotamia, arriving at Ctesiphon around the end of 260. Odenathus gathered the Palmyrene Arab army and Syrian peasants and marched north to meet the Shah. Odenathus attacked and defeated him at a place between Samosata and Zeugma, west of the Euphrates. Shapur Shahbazi opposes the view of Roman historians and their modern successors that he conducted repeated expeditions against Shapur I as a Roman ally in the following years. According to WB Henning, "transporting a large number of prisoners across the desert in addition to the Persian army was a difficult undertaking; the fact that Shapur managed this (as proven by the presence of the provincials in Susiana) sufficiently shows how exaggerated the usual accounts of Odenathus' exploits against the Persians in the desert are."
See also
- Shapur I's first Roman campaign
- Shapur I's second Roman campaign
- Sasanian campaign of Gordian III