Universality of patriarchy

The universality of patriarchy is a standard finding of cultural anthropology.
Cultural anthropology is an empirical (observational) science, based on field work, that produces "pictures" of individual human societies called ethnographies. It is also a theoretical science, called ethnology, comparing and contrasting societies in order to classify and explain the empirical data. Societies have marked differences in the way they exploit resources for survival, the artifacts they produce and in various rituals and other traditions. They also have similarities like marriage, family and the incest taboo. Aspects of human behaviour and social organisation that are common to all known societies are called cultural universals. Patriarchy is one of these universals.
In ordinary language, patriarchy is simply fathers acting as heads of families. However, patriarchy also has two technical uses. In anthropology, it refers—by extension—to men predominating in roles associated with governing societies. In feminism—by a further extension—it refers to the inequality of social roles between men and women. In fact, Gloria Watkins proposed that "the essence of feminism is opposition to patriarchy". Watkins and many other feminists also consider patriarchy, in their sense of the word, to be universal.
However, this article is about the universality of patriarchy in cultural anthropology. For the universality of patriarchy in feminist theory see Feminist theory.
Notes and references
Bibliography
* bell hooks and others (1993). "Let's get real about feminism: the backlash, the myths, the movement". Ms September/October: 34-43.
* Buss, David M. (1998). "Sexual Strategies Theory: Historical Origins and Current Status". The Journal of Sex Research 35(1): 19-31.
* Brown, Donald (1991). Human Universals.
* Eller, Cynthia (2000). The Myth of Matriarchal Prehistory.
* Goldberg, Steven (1973). The Inevitability of Patriarchy.
* Goldberg, Steven (1993). Why Men Rule.
* Pinker, Steven (2002). The Blank Slate.

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