The different statuses of French in England between the 11th and 21st centuries

The status of a language in a foreign land is always difficult to determine precisely. Regarding the case of French in England, this status seems highly shifting throughout the course of history. Relatively well documented for the centuries of the Norman period, the presence of French seems to wane with time only to appear in unexpected and versatile areas.
To measure changes in the status of the language of Molière, we chose to divide arbitrarily this long period of ten centuries into three parts of unequal duration. This way, we will firstly focus on the late Middle Ages and the Norman period, then the era between the Renaissance and the late Enlightenment and finally the period stretching from the Industrial Revolution to today.
From the Norman invasion ( eleventh century ) to the late Middle Ages( fifteenth century )
The Norman Invasion
It is interesting to note that, at the beginning of the eleventh century, Norman blood enriched the English court through Emma of Normandy, wife of . From this union was born the King Edward the Confessor, who would spend the rest of his childhood in his mother’s birthplace since the death of his father and will learn Norman, but without forgetting the language of his country. The presence of Norman in the English court is obviously not overwhelming, yet it somehow explains the views of William the Conqueror on the throne of England.
The history of French in England is of course inseparable from the crucial date of October 14, 1066. On this day took place the famous Battle of Hastings at the end of which Normandy’s William the Bastard (later renamed William the Conqueror) killed his opponent Harold II. William became king of England and brought along a court directly imported from Normandy, speaking a dialect belonging to the Gallo-Roman family of “oïl language”, coloured with a few Viking loans.
William’s being crowned king of England and Duke of Normandy changed the face of political map in England. His liegemen having come with him to see Albion were immediately placed at the head of enormous domains, and thereby were endowed with positions of importance. The presence of Norman (and the status associated therewith) in England will then be ambiguous. Indeed, its existence is confined to court life as only newly installed Norman nobles spoke their mother tongue. In reality, few Norman nobles took the initiative to establish themselves in England after the conquest of the island by William I. The kind of Norman population that decided to settle in England was above all the gentry, which merged easily in local populations (of the same rank, that is). Through constant interactions, through linguistic compromises, a new dialect emerged: Anglo-Norman. This new language could be essentially found at court where it served notably as a literary language. While it is difficult to gauge the degree to which the Anglo-Norman was actually spoken, it is possible to account for its influence through numerous literary texts.
Law and Administration
It is interesting to note that the administrative language, however, was hardly changed in order to leave some space to Norman, freshly appeared on the island. Indeed, the treasure of information that represents the Domesday Book was written neither in French nor in English but in Latin. The text completed in 1086 under King William’s command is a Herculean undertaking of censing the British population and its wealth. In that way, Guillaume established his power, enacted laws and possessed the information enabling him to levy taxes.
The enacting William’s new laws was made in Norman, as to set the tone in the Norman’s new kingdom. These laws will eventually be translated into Latin. It goes without saying that these laws could not be understood by and audience that had never heard any language other than Old English. In addition, some laws introduced by William I of England were meant to help French citizens at the cost of the locals. This was the case of a law lying within a legal case allowing a French of being acquitted of murder if the evidence against him was considered too scarce (or nonexistent, according to the blurredness left by the act) through an oath of innocence. An Englishman facing the same situation only had at their disposal the ordeal of combat or hot iron in order to prove their case.
The Local Population
On the local level Anglo-Norman is far from belonging to a tangible reality. William and the nobility attached to him will bring a number of craftsmen on the continent, especially masons who will take on importing the Norman architectural style. The scarcity of lexical evidence (such as “mason” derived from “maçon”, which appeared in the twelfth century as highlighted in Douglas A. Kibbee’s For to Speke Frenche Trewely) brings us to the conclusion that very few craftsmen will mingle with their English counterparts. Anglo-Norman can unsurprisingly be encountered in toponyms created to consolidate the Norman hold. It is hardly astonishing to find the name "Rougemont" in the small river town of Exeter in Devon (although far from the centre of power located much further east on the island). Apart from a few isolated examples, Anglo-Norman did not prevail in England, at least not in its spoken form.
What, however, is richly documented is the influence of the language of oïl on the Old English spoken by most of the population, which made the latter pass onto the level of Middle English. Thus, Anglo-Norman served as a vehicle to a countless number of words from French into English. If lexemes of Roman origin emerged in a primarily Germanic language, freshly imported words belong to a more formal register than their nearest English equivalent up to today.
William's legacy
William the Conqueror died in 1087, his language will survive him much longer among the ruling classes. This linguistic tradition was secured by the marriage of Henry II to Eleanor of Aquitaine. In fact, the presence of Eleanor in the court marked the end of Anglo-Norman as a variety of French, since the queen spoke a continental variety continental which was slowly gaining the status of norm. The nobles went off to "cures" of French on the continent to submit to this new standard. French was the language of prestige and education, and therefore must be spoken properly, according to the French standards. Let us remember that the British royal motto "Honi soit qui mal y pense" was uttered by King Edward III in the 15th century, demonstrating the vitality of French at the court.
Regarding the use of French outside of the court, it is clear that the Romance language remained discreet or even invisible. Its use was limited to the legal world mainly in large cities related to power, like London. This status was conferred by law "Novel Disseisin" in 1166, which allowed any free man to appeal to the royal court. In addition to that, under King John (of the Plantagenet family) the Parliament of England will be created in the 13th century. If the founding document of the parliament is written in Latin (the Magna Carta), the convening of the latter (whose purpose was primarily to raise new taxes) and the edicts promulgated as a result of the discussions were written in French. This allows us to see that French remained primarily a linguistic privilege attached to the king and his nobility.
Law and Administration

On the administrative and legal levels, Latin prevailed and this far beyond the 11th century and the Middle Ages. Virtually no member of the British administration spoke French. Among the most voluminous records of medieval England representing over three thousand documents in total, barely twenty documents were written in French. Among these texts written in French, we find documents including some ordinances from the king and manuscripts originating from the parliament. The rest of this thin corpus is, more intriguingly this time, composed of materials for publication of laws or even pledging. Indeed, perhaps as a reuse of laws enacted by William the Conqueror in the 11th century, it was not uncommon that citizens should perform oath publicly in French. Orders and proclamations - destined to be read in public - were also redacted and promulgated in French. This choosing French over Latin might probably be explained by the prestige still associated with French, as well as its “lively” aspect.For, indeed, if French was not widespread in English society, Latin was probably even less. It seems pretty logical that people should have preferred the French language, certainly little known, to Latin, a century-dead language.
Guilds and Petitions
Out of this framework, French could be found in an even more unexpected domain: documents related to the various guilds and corporations. It might seem strange that craftsmen should have cared to speak in a language associated with the legal, cultural and courtly worlds. However, when one focuses a little bit in the life of a guild, it comes as striking that the latter relied heavily on the idea of prestige. For example, each year during the festivities of Corpus Cristi, representations of mystery plays were organized. These small plays based on the religious episodes borrowed from the two Testaments. Each episode was interpreted and directed by an assigned guild (sometimes with a delicious irony, such as the pinners and the painters for the crucifixion). These scenes were barely disguised ways for guilds to display their savoir-faire and their wealth (the drapers, the richest, had often the privilege of staging the Apocalypse in an overtly copious flurry of expensive fabrics). Thus, the best way to demonstrate their prestige was assuredly to address the royal body in the royal language. Most craftsmen being literarily uneducated, the aid of French-speaking individual was often requested (and paid).
This use of the prestige associated with French expressed very clearly in large cities such as London. There are several examples of petitions made to authorities both from individuals and groups of individuals (amongst which we find again the corporations) addressed in French. This corresponds to a polite way of protesting in a language that gave legitimacy to the claims. Note here that the fact that London is associated with the place of power is not insignificant. The proximity of the king and his language partially explains its use by this part of the population.
Literature
Apart from the social dimension, we find a fascination for French literature. From the 11th century we find several Anglo-Norman versions texts circulating on the continent such as La Chanson de Roland. These texts are, relatively obviously, intended to be used by the court, who enjoyed tales relating in verse the exploits of idealised heroes. This is particularly true for Yonec by the famous and cultivated Marie de France, written in Anglo-Norman. Let us not forget that romance is mainly an oral genre, which will be transcribed much later such as the works of authors like Chretien de Troyes and Marie de France. It therefore is difficult to gauge the status of French as a literary language through this genre.
Religion and Liturgy
Finally, French will not find its place among the clergy or the church. Indeed, clergymen were more encouraged to speak English (or Latin) to their flock rather than French. This undertaking of translating the Bible and admonishing sermons in the vernacular language is hardly new in England since under King Alfred certain passages of the holy book circulated in Old English as early as in the 9th century. There will be no question of French in English churches.
Late Middle Ages
Literature
In the early 13th century, following the unprecedented growth of the literary genre of romance, poet Jean Bodel - from Arras, geographically close to England - coined the classification of the aforementioned poetic-narrative in his Chanson de Saisnes. It divides the corpus of songs depending on the origins and the matter that is treated. This way were created the matter of Rome, attached to the Greco-Roman myths, the matter of France, linked to the deeds of Charlemagne and his men and finally the matter of Britain, relating to Celtic legends revolving around the figure of King Arthur. These three types were all roaring in England, even if the matter of Britain gets out while the going is good and rose as a dominant movement. In fact, since the 13th century, and until much later (in the 19th and 20th centuries!), the legend of Arthur will constantly nourish the imagination of the Anglo-Saxon world. In addition, as noted above, Brittany is located very close to England, the literary exchanges between the two traditions will remain continuous and passionate.
However, the success of French themes and authors did little or nothing to favour the promulgation of the original language over the English-speaking territory. Most of the works written in a Romance language will be translated into Middle English such as Sir Orfeo, opening with the famous lines:

"In this Breteyne layes Were wrought,
First y-founde and forth y-Brought,
Of fel bi dayes Aventours That,
Her layes Wherof Bretouns Makeda. "(Sir Orfeo, ll.13-16)
It is nevertheless difficult to pigeonhole Sir Orfeo into one of the three aforesaid categories. If the work is based on a story of ancient Greek origin, its treatment is eminently Breton. Whatever the answer to this classification, it remains that the dissemination of original French text is in English.

As we progress in time, it becomes more difficult to find examples of famous romances circulating in French on the English land. Even the medieval "bestseller" The Romaunt of the Rose composed around 1230 will be partially translated from French into Middle English by Chaucer notably.
From the 14th century and the parting of England from France, English authors would write in their first language, leaving both French and the literature that the latter generated. The "leader" of this typically English movement would be one of the founders of English literature, namely Geoffrey Chaucer.
The Local Population

In the most modest layers of population, we note an increasing success for continental-sounding names from the second half of the 12fth century, even among farmers (70% of men and 45% of women according to a study by conducted by Ramsey. While it is difficult to deduce that French reached the lower classes, one can speculate, however, that French remained attractive.
From the Renaissance ( 16th century )to the late Enlightenment ( 18th century)
Parallel to its extinction in literature (albeit a little later), the occurrence of French in the archival field stops in the early 15th century, where the language was suffering not only from the crown is passing from the hands of Plantagenet to the Lancaster but also from the Hundred Years War which had been raging since the previous century. If French continued to survive at the royal court, it was only temporarily and conditioned to marriages of the kings of England with queens from France (the last one being Margaret of Anjou married to Henry VI). A practical instance of the use of French in court and among the aristocracy is the adoption of English monarchy’s second device "Dieu et Mon Droit" by Henry V in the 15th century (this device will remain unchanged until today). Besides, England was far too busy with its problems of internal governance (the War of Roses followed closely the Hundred Years War) and same goes for France, which is experiencing one of its greatest crises. Thanks to its blossoming literature, English finally acquired its deserved prestige and detached itself almost completely from French influences.
The Hundred Years' War and Renaissance tolled the knell for French in England. Indeed, from the 16th century, not France but Italy caught everyone’s attention. Throughout Europe, languages would derive new vocabulary from Tuscan, and England would not be at a loss. Let us remember that Anglo-Norman had failed in supplanting Latin in administration in the Middle Ages, French will do little better in science in the Renaissance. The zeitgeist is humanism, the declaration of independence of man from God (without falling into some form of agnosticism, Europe is still highly religious). Latin was used to promote one’s ideas across the continent and - who knows - across the recently discovered continent. Latin would be the lingua franca of Europe for a few more centuries. French was almost out of sight in England, apart from publishing translation lexicons and grammars about the use of French.
French Cultural Hegemony
In the 17th century, the state of French outside of France (and thus in England) finally underwent a revival. French finally got its back on Latin in countries that had previously neglected the former. Culturally, France reached an apogee far beyond all expectations. Writers like Racine, Corneille, Molière, La Fontaine, etc.. conferred to French all its beauty and glory. Despite the disastrous protectionist policies of Louis XIV (particularly colbertism), the influence of France began to dazzle. In addition, France was catching up in its colonial enterprises, and settled near the English colonies in North America and went ahead in India. England did not regard France as its biggest rival throughout the 17th century.
England and the Huguenots

In parallel, the revocation of the Edict of Nantes by Louis XIV in 1685 will produce a massive exodus of French Huguenots to countries where religious tolerance allowed them to escape prosecution. Besides the United Provinces, England, which had been the ground to many battles between Catholics and Protestants in the past and had henceforth solved its problems, seemed to be a destination of choice. Between 40 000 and 50 000 French citizens fled to England so between 1670 and 1710. Anglican institutions welcomed them with open arms and arranged for French Protestants to feel at home. These steps included by praising the French language and culture. If this situation lasted for a certain period and generated a francomania in England, the Huguenots will soon blend into the local population, to adopt their customs and language. The portion of the Huguenots in London can be seen in the district of Spitalfields where the French developed the silk trade. An estimated one quarter of the population of London nowadays (of English origin, it goes without saying) has Huguenot blood.
French in Science and Philosophy
The death of Louis XIV and the entering the Enlightenment in the 18th century will upgrade French from the status of beautiful language to universal language. French scientists and philosophers imposed themselves on the continent. In Europe, new and enlightened ideas shaped up under the pen of Voltaire,Jean-Jacques Rousseau, Diderot, ... They would be invited throughout Europe and England was no exception. In a beautiful game of influences, French authors became inspired by English philosophers such as John Locke (17th century) and established a dialogue between the island and the continent. This era also kicked off the race for scientific discovery; men like Laplace, Lavoisier, d'Alembert exported French knowledge and faced other English scientists such as Cavendish and Watt. Out of this healthy competition, the French language would come as a winner. In England as in the rest of Europe, French was somehow relearned as a key to culture, science and diplomacy. If it had never lost its patina of sophistication, French became the criterion of difference between people from upper classes and the populace in England. It was at this time that many French words passed stoned onto English, as “coup d'etat”, “double-entente”, “trompe-l'oeil”, “connoisseur”, “chargé d’affaires”,…
French and Luxury
Another area got adorned with French sonorities in the 18th century, under the influence of greedy Queen Marie-Antoinette and thanks to revolutionary cooks such as Marie-Antoine Carême. French cuisine developed and became combined with etiquette, the refined pleasures of the palace. Its popularity and his self-proclaimed superiority lead it to be regarded by its neighbours as a model of excellence. This helped restore the prestige of French in England and opened the tradition that bound French to luxury.
French and English Education

In the 18th century, education developed in England and opened the first schools to the lowest layers of the population. Only boys at first, then girls would be trained in grammar schools to learn English, Latin, Ancient Greek, and in some cases ... French. The latter became the symbol of a good education and good manners. Besides the inestimable administrative evidence, the recognition of French as the language of culture is reflected in the literary domain through the flourishing success of the novel. In his work Vanity Fair, William Makepeace Thackeray portrays the social troubles and tribulations of Becky Sharp, a heroine of poor extraction endowed with the knowledge of French through her mother. If the second part of the story takes place in the nineteenth century, the reader can distinguish the advantage that the knowledge of French constituted in English society. Knowledge paired up with high ambitions was the key to climb up the social ladder. Same goes for the heroines of Jane Austen, characterized by their pertaining to high British society.
Political Tensions Between France and England
However, not everything was going well between France and England. Historical events of the 18th century reflects a fierce confrontation between the two powers on an international level. India, this oh so tasty cake, could not be shared and both France and England had serious hopes for the colonization of this territory. If France had taken the lead, England was not short of ambitions and managed to invade the country. Across the globe, Britain was struggling to contain the many separatist revolts on the North American ground. France was on the verge of its Revolution and intervened by sending its generals stateside to help the American people get rid of British oppression. There was a serious friction between France and England.
After six centuries of official existence in the English Court of Justice, French got banned from the legal world in 1761 by an act of parliament ("...all proceedings whatsoever, in any courts of justice shall be in the English tongue and language only, and not in Latin or French, or any other tongue or language whatsoever ...).
From the English Industrial Revolution ( 19th century) to today
With the 19th century, England witnessed its Industrial Revolution. The leitmotiv of this period was to promulgate reforms that would propel England to the rank of the most powerful nation in the world. Tensions between France and England reached a peak when the latter declared war on the armies of Napoleon Bonaparte on the Belgian ground to impose the First Republic its most stinging defeat at Waterloo in 1815. In subsequent years, England would experience an economical and territorial expansion at the expense of all other European nations. This hegemony was associated with the slow but steady growth in the United States. Henceforth English will be the language associated with power, technology and trade. England needed neither France nor French to exist. This disdain was also quite reciprocal, since France was experiencing an unprecedented Anglophobia, following its defeats in Europe and in the colonial war. In Europe, French still maintained its position diplomatic language, but this status began to grow dim. If it was fashionable to know some French from high bourgeoisie to the aristocracy in the Victorian era, learning it was no longer seen as a necessity. Let us consider the novelistic example of Jane Eyre (Charlotte Brontë) in which a simple French tutor experiences a tumultuous love affair with the rich landowner Mr. Rochester. French, the symbol of a good education, worked in favour of heroin. But let us not be mistaken, French had no place in the courts of Europe anymore. Besides this value of decadent luxury, French still retained its status of scientific language in the world ... this situation would also change.
WWI, WW2 and Diplomacy
The 20th century marked a turning point for Europe. The continent was ravaged by WWI, which left a short respite to European populations before the second World War broke out. During the first as well as during the second war, the English will be allies of the French. For the first time in the history of both nations, the British no longer had to resort to French to maintain communication with their French comrades. The Treaty of Versailles ratified this regression from French, the document being signed into French and English.
Reversal of Influences
The reverse of what had been going on for many centuries occurred: English enriched the French vocabulary. Despite numerous reactions to Anglicisms, it seems obvious that the pressure of English is far too strong for French to stand much longer, and this with the support of the United States, which had become the first world power. French no longer has any status in England, where even the upper classes are exempt from learning it. However, French is still taught in high school.
French and Fashion

The last trace of French in Britain is in an unexpected and capricious area. With the creation of huge couture houses (Chanel in 1909, Jean Patou in 1910, Cristobal Balenciaga in 1914, Christian Dior in 1946, ...) French became the symbol of luxury and savoir-faire associated with the fashion world. The wealthy from all around the world fight over their creations in Paris, become vehicles of French culture. In England, decorative and stylistic periods bear French names, such as the Belle Epoque, Art Nouveau, Art Deco,... Perfumes, whose main function was - and remains - to fund couture collections, bear French names and advertisements intended to vaunt their virtues are left untranslated. Until today, the only French foray into the English territory is through French advertising (broadcast as such, without subtitles).
French and English Education
In 2004, the GCSE (General Certificate of Secondary Education) suppressed French from its compulsory courses for the English equivalent of the baccalauréat. The consequences did not take long to manifest themselves and French dropped like a stone from the top ten of the most studied subjects in England. In eight years (even before the measure of suppression was taken) the number of pupils studying French has plummeted by half and this trend shows no sign of reversal. In fact, many Britons who took French as a second language in high school have very few memories of the language of Molière once they left school. In the absence of a desire by both students and professors to learn and teach French, very few are interested in the French language.
Conclusions
To sum up, this research leads us to draw some conclusions. First, the Norman conquest of England has left very few traces in the state English. The legal is undoubtedly the area that felt the strongest French influence, since French was the official language of the courts in England until the 18th century; French is nowhere to be seen in any other pole of power. Secondly, because of the presence of French at court and in the nobility, French established itself as the language of prestige and culture in England, and could indicate social class of the speaker. Third, the status of French is measured primarily by the pressure of the former onto English, changing the latter from Old English to Middle English. Fourth, over time, the French domination in England has continued to weaken and disappear almost completely nowadays.
This shows that languages very often ignore the status attributed to them, as official as it may be. French, like any other language is subjected to the perceptions of the foreign society that it faces. In some respects, the most subjective ones, French still finds beautiful means of expression. In other- such as justice, law, ... - it evaporates as soon as no text nor law confers it an official status. This is without doubt proof that a language is a sociological phenomenon among others, uncontrollable and this is perhaps what makes its beauty.

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