On Combat: The Psychology and Physiology of Deadly Conflict in War and in Peace

On Combat: The Psychology and Physiology of Deadly Conflict in War and in Peace was written by Lieutenant Colonel Dave Grossman with Loren Christensen and published by PPCT Research Publications in 2004.
This book explores in detail what physically and mentally happens to most people when confronted with a deadly threat. Both authors have written previous books dealing with this subject.
Authors
Grossman has an extensive military background as a member of the Army Rangers. His book, On Killing, was written over a decade ago and is still one of the definitive works on the subject. Through research and interviews, Grossman was able to open a window into the soul of a "warrior" and explain why even when directly threatened, it is not a simple thing to take another human being's life.
Loren Christensen is a former police officer and co-author of another use of force book, Deadly Force Encounters. That book focused on law enforcement experiences with lethal force. Again through interviews and research, Christensen, and his co-author Dr. Alexis Artwohl, gave a human face to the peace officer forced to kill.
On Combat combines the world of the military combat veteran with that of the police officer. The authors' contention is that both are worthy of the term "warrior". The "warrior" is the 1% who protects the 98% from the remaining 1% who would do them harm.
Sections
The book is divided into four sections. Each section deals with a different aspect of combat but always from the perspective of how a human deals with combat. The book is opened with a foreword from Gavin de Becker, author of best selling book, The Gift of Fear. In the foreword, de Becker explains the difference between the logic brain and the wild brain and states, "Ideally, the wild brain helps us to receive the most powerful asset nature has given us: intuition. The root of the word intuition, tuere, means, 'to guard and protect,' and that's exactly what it can do for us-particularly if prepared with accurate and relevant information." <Grossman, 2004>
The Physiology of Combat
The first section is titled, "The Physiology of Combat: The Anatomy of the Human Body in Battle". The authors describe a basic element of combat as the "Universal Human Phobia". That phobia is the innate human aversion to killing one of their own. With only a small percentage of the population as an exception, human beings will find it difficult to take another human's life in a face to face confrontation.
Equally as important to understand is the body's reactions to being attacked. Interpersonal human aggression creates a "toxic and corrosive" atmosphere in the daily work of warriors everywhere. Our bodies will respond in ways that we may not be able to control but must understand nonetheless if we are to competently handle a lethal threat. Automatic systems designed for thoughtless survival kick into gear. Adrenaline is released, digestive processes cease and even bladder and sphincter control is lost. These are things to prepare for and not be surprised by, should they happen.
The automatic systems in place are the sympathetic (SNS) and parasympathetic (PNS) nervous systems. The SNS arouses you to action when necessary and the PNS works to regain control and establish a balance in your body. The snapping back of your body from the arousal to an attempt at normalcy can be a dangerous condition. Napoleon said, "The moment of greatest vulnerability is the instant immediately after victory." It may not only be a physical collapse but also a dangerous mental collapse as well.
Maintaining good sleep habits, which would include a minimum of 7-9 hours of uninterrupted sleep, is very important to aid in the bodies' maintenance. Less than that places unneeded stress on the body. There is an amount of stress that is actually beneficial, however, that is caused by increasing your heart rate. The increase must be caused by SNS arousal. Heart rate increases caused by exercise will not have the same effect. The authors emphasize that the numbers are not precise and different people will have different experiences depending on factors such as training and physical fitness levels.
Of particular interest is the fact that it appears that a hormonal induced heart rate of 115-145 bpm produces an optimal level of performance in those skills most necessary for combat and survival. Complex motor skills, visual reaction time and cognitive reaction time are all at their peak.
The reason for bringing this information to the reader's attention is to emphasize the importance of realistic and stressful training which can create almost an "autopilot" response to a deadly threat. It is also important not to allow your heart rate to climb too much higher than 145 bpm. Generally, your skill level and reaction times begin to deteriorate when heart rates go beyond 145 bpm.
One major way to combat stress and its negative effects is through tactical breathing. The authors describe that there are only two autonomic nervous system actions you can consciously control; breathing and blinking. Of the two, controlling your breathing will be of great benefit during a stressful situation. You can decrease your heart rate by practicing tactical breathing. The breaths should be deep 'belly breaths', that is, during inhaling, your stomach expands like a balloon. Each step is done while mentally counting to four. The four simple steps to this breathing are:
* In through the nose, two, three, four.
* Hold two, three, four.
* Out through the lips two, three, four.
* Hold two, three, four.
This tactical breathing sequence is most effective when repeated at least four times.
Perceptual distortion
Section two of the book discusses the possible perceptual distortions that may occur during a lethal force encounter. The authors use information collected by Dr. Alexis Artwohl and Loren Christensen in preparation for the writing of their book, Deadly Force Encounters. The findings were based on a survey of 141 officers. These findings described the most common distortions that occurred.
Perceptual Distortions in Combat
* 85% Diminished sound (auditory exclusion)
* 16% Intensified sounds
* 80% Tunnel vision
* 4% Automatic pilot ("scared speechless")
* 72% Heightened visual clarity
* 65% Slow motion time
* 16% Fast motion time
* 7% Temporary paralysis
* 51% Memory loss for parts of the event
* 47% Memory loss for some of the subject's actions
* 40% Dissociation (detachment)
* 26% Intrusive distracting thoughts
* 22% Memory distortions
Some people may have experienced more than one type of distortion while others experience none at all. Again, having knowledge of a possible experiential distortion will prepare an officer for its occurrence, thereby providing an 'inoculation' against its effects.
Mental attitude
Section three describes the mental attitude necessary to be a warrior. The book goes into greater detail about stress inoculation and its importance to effective, realistic training. There are also some important training principles outlined.
Principle 1: Never "Kill" a Warrior in Training. Learners are expected to complete a scenario even if hit, stabbed or shot. As a trainer, tell them, "You're not dead until I tell you you're dead!" Don't give up, always win.
Principle 2: Try to Never Send a Loser off Your Training Site. Have your participants go through a scenario as many times as necessary in order to have them succeed. Scenarios designed to make the trainee look foolish or fail just prove that the training designers are incompetent.
Principle 3: As a Trainer, Never Talk Trash about Your Students. Don't ridicule or try to tell funny stories about the last trainee who tried to complete your scenario. Your role as a trainer/leader is not only to pass along knowledge but also to inspire. You cannot do this when you are not respected. If criticism is to be given, give it in private. If praise is warranted, do so publicly.
Encourage your learners not to worry over a 'bad' day of training. Fix the problem, correct the deficiency, strive to improve and move on.
The will to do the job (kill if necessary) is sometimes enough to change a situation from one of having to use lethal force to something less. The determination to perform the ultimate act may be perceived by the intended recipient of your force and in itself be enough to deter their actions. If you've got that steel-eyed certainty in your eyes, the bad guy may not wish to actually test your resolve. You are the weapon; everything else is just a tool.
Your resolve to succeed must include the possibility of losing some blood. You can lose a half-gallon of blood and your body will continue to mechanically function. Ceasing to fight before that much blood is lost is due to a lack of will, not lack of hydraulics.
You need three very simple things in order to survive a lethal encounter; the right weapon, the skill to use that weapon, and the mental decision to use that weapon, even if it means that someone may die. This decision must be made well in advance of a time during the confrontation with the deadly threat. At the time you are confronted with violence is not the time to wonder whether or not you can respond with deadly force if necessary.
The remaining chapters in this section discuss the history of weaponry (and its effect on combat), and some superior reasoning for the increase in school violence.
Aftermath
The fourth and last section of the book deals with the aftermath; what does a person feel like after they have taken a life. One of the most common reactions expressed is relief, "Better him than me". This feeling can often lead to guilt of sorts, "Why did he make me kill him." Although the feeling of relief is perfectly natural, allowing that to progress into guilt is not. After all, winning a deadly force encounter is certainly cause to feel happy about being alive.
The authors contend that there are ways of handling an emotional upheaval such as having to kill someone. First, you cannot act like it did not happen. You should talk about it, preferably with a mental health professional. Second, after a year or so has passed, you should not be unduly affected emotionally by remembering the event. As the authors put it, "The memory must be separated from the emotion." If the fear of the repeat of such an event has a significant negative impact on your day to day life you should seek the help of a mental health professional. Examples of this could include: not being able to go near the area an event occurred without feeling anxiety or having nightmares about the event.
The critical incident debrief is also an excellent way to assist personnel in getting through what can be an emotionally tough time. By debriefing we can reconstruct the event in hopes of finding out what worked and what didn't. We can also fill in the holes (if any exist) by bringing all involved parties together and thereby get a much better overall view of the incident. A positive emotional side-effect of this is that pain shared with others is divided amongst the group and not the sole burden of any one person. Additionally, joy shared is multiplied and everyone can feel better at another person's accomplishment and success.
Another important way to assist is simply by letting your friend or loved one know that you are glad they are O.K. It is not necessary to try and approve or justify their actions but just let them know that you are happy that they're O.K. An offer of your personal time to listen or help with anything else they might need would go far in letting them know how important that they are.
One of the last points to be made in this book is the idea of justice not vengeance. Although not considered to be a major problem in law enforcement, it is nonetheless important to emphasize that killing, when justified and necessary, is not something to be glorified or celebrated. It is just something that is. Being forced to kill another human being is not something we do with a hatred of the crook or glee at their demise. We just do it. We must strive to dispassionately but effectively protect others as well as ourselves.

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