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High school dropouts: an annotated bibliography
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Defining a Dropout According to the United States Department of Education (USDOE), a Dropout is defined as a minor who has withdrawn from high school prior to graduation (or completion of a course of studies), except for those students who transferred to another institution, are enrolled in an equivalency program, or perished. Even students who forgo formal education and subsequently obtain the General Educational Development (GED) credential are still counted as dropouts. Numerous studies have identified a multitude of negative personal repercussions for minors who fail to graduate from high school, as well as costs to society as a whole. As well, obtaining a GED doesn't mitigate many of these consequences. Fixing the Problem A great deal of programs have been commissioned in an attempt to curb the high school dropout rate, but a large majority of them have failed in this respect. This is likely due to the fact that many policy-makers, many of whom did graduate from high school, often go with their gut-instinct, rather than reliable research, when deciding which policies to enact. It is important to compile as much empirical evidence as possible on which types of students drop out, why they drop out, and what are the most efficient and effective ways to compel them to graduate high school. Annotated Resources and References Many of the resources included in the following annotated bibliography are scholarly journal articles that provide information on the causes and solutions to the dropout problem currently occurring in North American High Schools. Several articles define the personal factors that induce minors to dropout, while other articles evaluate the effects that various factors have on a student's motivation to graduate. This bibliography focuses mainly on the socio-economic aspects of high school attrition, as opposed to a political commentary. A majority of the newspaper articles written on this subject have been omitted, mainly due to the fact that much of their writing is based on uninformed/unverified presumptions and postulations, or suffer from unnecessary political connotations. The purpose of this bibliography is to inform parents and policy-makers of what steps they can take to increase the likelihood of minors graduating from high school, as well as functioning as a primer to research on the subject of High School Dropouts. Christle, C. A., Jolivette, K., & Nelson, C. M. (2007). School characteristics related to high school dropout rates. Remedial & Special Education, 28(6), 325-339. âž·This study uses data collected at the school-level in Kentucky in an attempt to correlate various school-related factors with high school dropout rates. These factors included Enrollment rates, gender/ethnicity percentages, the average socioeconomic standing (SES) of students, academic achievement levels (through the average scores on the CTBS - Comprehensive Test of Basic Skills), attendance rates, retention rates, suspension rates, etcetera. The study found that, while most factors were correlated to dropouts in some way, the factors that had the most influence on the dropout rate were the attendance rates and the academic achievement levels. They found that low CTBS scores and high retention rates were positively correlated to dropouts, and that attendance rates were negatively correlated with dropout rates. As well, the study demonstrated that the SES of both the students, and the neighborhood, were correlated to the dropout rate (low SES = higher dropout rate). The study also identifies several school qualities (i.e. condition of facilities, quality of instruction/staff) showed a relationship with dropout rates. Combs, J., & Cooley, W. W. (1968). Dropouts: In high school and after school. American Educational Research Journal, 5(3), 343-363. âž· This study focuses on interpreting the results from the 1960-1964 TALENT study, a longitudinal study focusing on high school curriculum and the life choices made by its sample. The author notes that not all dropouts are below average in their scholastic or educational abilities, as most are quick to believe. She mentions several other studies (Warner 1964, French 1965) that support these results, and states that this must mean that not all dropouts leave for a lack of ability. While many dropouts reported a "lack of interest" or a "lack of scholastic success" as their primary reason for leaving school, the author notes that these factors are only symptoms, not the actual problems that cause students to drop out. As well, part of the follow-up interviews with subjects dealt with their current life satisfaction. Dropouts were earning similar levels of income as their graduate counterparts; however, the author notes that these subjects were only a few years removed from school at the time of follow-up, and highlights the fact that certain consequences of dropping out of school may not transpire until later in life. Even so, over 50% of questioned dropouts reported regretting that they did not graduate. Eckstein, Z., & Wolpin, K. I. (1999). Why youths drop out of high school: The impact of preferences, opportunities, and abilities. Econometrica, 67(6), 1295-1339. âž· This study correlates high school graduation and dropout rates with concurrent employment and education, among other factors. The researchers found that dropping out is correlated to a group of specific traits: lower school ability/motivation, lower expected values of a high school diploma, higher ability in jobs that don't require a diploma, and a higher value placed on leisure time. As well, they found that family background has a large impact on dropout preferences, and determined that only a small number of factors are necessary to estimate its effects: parent education levels, family income, and household structure. They conclude that holding a job while attending high school does have an effect on ones propensity to drop out. However, they believe that policies designed solely to reduce the number of hours a student can work while enrolled will little to no effect. Rather, they believe, these policies must be combined with programs that instill a higher value of graduating in minors if they are to be effective in reducing dropout levels. Goldschmidt, P., & Wang, J. (1999). When can schools affect dropout behavior? A longitudinal multilevel analysis. American Educational Research Journal, 36(4), 715-738. âž· This study attempts to identify when and why students drop out of school. The study divides dropouts into two categories, early (middle school) and late (high school) dropouts, and attempts to discern whether there are any significant differences in the mix of factors between the two that account for a student dropping out. The study found that the mix does change between the two periods, but the researchers couldn't find a discernable pattern to that change. They found that specific family characteristics (educational background, single parent family, etc.) seemed to have a larger effect on late dropouts than it did on early dropouts, but that the SES of the family (and the community at large) was strongly correlated to both groups (lower SES = higher dropout rates). The study also found that retention rates are correlated almost equally to both groups. The study concludes by stating that early identification of at-risk students can have a significant effect in deterring a student from dropping out. Levitt, S. D. (2004). Understanding why crime fell in the 1990s: Four factors that explain the decline and six that do not. The Journal of Economic Perspectives, 18(1), 163-190. âž· This journal article was written by Dr. Levitt in 2004. It attempts to explain why the crime rate fell in the US during the 1990's. He examines multiple independent variable such as increased imprisonment, changes in the market for crack cocaine, the aging of the population, tougher gun control laws, the strong economy and increases in the number of police imprisonment rates, gentrification, crack-cocaine markets, gun-control laws, the improving economy (lower unemployment, etc.), and increases in the number of police. Levitt finds that most of the factors had little effect on the crime rate. However, he found that increases in the number of police, the increasing imprisonment rates, the waining crack-cocaine epidemic, and the legalization of abortion had relatively strong impacts on the crime rate Lewis, A. C. (2004). Slippery dropouts. The Education Digest, 69(6), 69-70. âž· This article concerns the inconsistencies that are being recognized in state-reported education statistics since the inception of the No Child Left Behind (NCLB) Act in late 2002. Data accuracy in these statistics is a major concern, as much of the reports that come from state officials are much more flattering of high school graduation rates than actual data would imply. A main reason for the inconsistencies between states and jurisdictions reported data is that many states use conflicting definitions of graduates and dropouts. Only 37 states fully comply with the National Center for Education Statistics' (NCES) definitions; some non-compliers report data for inconsistent time periods, or include GED recipients as graduates. NCLB itself has caused problems, as it left a loophole for schools to report graduation rates as a function of twelfth grade enrollment, rather than cohort enrollment. The US Department of Education has plans to convene a panel of experts to create a standard for measuring graduation and dropout rates uniformly for the entire nation. Matthews, M. S. (2006). Gifted students dropping out: Recent findings from a southeastern state. Roeper Review, 28(4), 216-223. âž· This study focused on the rate and causes of "gifted" students who dropped out of high school in North Carolina. Previous research had suggested that as much as 20% of the entire dropout population had been considered "gifted" at some point. The author investigates this claim, and finds that there was little empirical data to support this claim, and that the original data this statement was based on was from a single district. This specific study found less than 1% of gifted students drop out, accounting for less than 1% of total dropouts. The author cites reasons for these huge differences, including who is counted as "gifted" and errors in counting graduates and dropouts. The author notes that more complex methods of defining or calculating graduation rates are not necessarily more accurate, and that differences in rates often come from using different data sources. This study counted students who left high school before completion for community college/GED programs as being dropouts. They found that gifted students often dropout for similar reasons as average students, but at different rates (due to gifted students typically being from higher SES and having higher ability levels). "Gifted" students dropout more often than average students in order to attend GED or other educational programs, while they are less likely to dropout (relative to average students) for reasons related to attendance problems. Miao, J., & Haney, W. (2004). High school graduation rates: Alternative methods and implications. Education Policy Analysis Archives, 12(55) âž·This study attempted to identify which of the six different methods for estimating graduation rates (simple 8, simple 9, simple 10, CPI, Greene, and Warren) were the most effective, at both the national level and state-level. The researchers noted that enrollment sizes vary substantially from state to state, and that estimated grad rates are much more stable in states with large enrollments as opposed to those in smaller ones. As well, the methods have larger discrepancies between them in states with typically poor grad rates, as opposed to smaller discrepancies in states with higher rates. The different methods all have correlated trends in the long run, but for individual states at specific times, the different methods can result in widely varying figures. The "Simple" methods are conceptually simple, but don't account for important occurrences such as retention or migration. Even so, the empirical data showed no evidence that conceptually more-complex methods (Greene, Warren, CPI) yielded more accurate or valid results than the simpler methods. As well, the more complex often returned conflicting, unreliable trends over time, while the simple methods offered more reliable results, and the authors conclude that there is little need for over-complexity in estimating graduation rates. Oreopoulos, P. (2007). Would more compulsory schooling help disadvantaged youth? evidence from recent changes to school-leaving laws. NBER Working Papers (c0588) âž· This study endeavors to ascertain whether compulsory attendance laws for education are an effective way to deter minors from dropping out, and whether or not raising these laws would be effective. The author states that to make these laws effective, you need to enforce the laws; however, the threat of enforcing the laws is much more effective in reducing truancy than actual enforcement. But some principals don't want to enforce, or even threaten to enforce, the laws because many of the students who are truant are also disruptive, and there is little financial incentive to improve attendance rates. As well, exceptions, exemptions, and lack of enforcement (when threats don't work) weaken these laws' effectiveness significantly. The author believes it's a balancing act. Some individuals don't gain from being forced to attend school, and it is better for them to dropout; there are fewer distractions, and the dropout can pursue what increases their welfare. Others, however, may gain from being forced to attend school because their short-sidedness prevents them from realizing the potential gains from staying in school. The author concludes that these laws are effective in reducing dropouts and increasing attendance, and there appears to be an indirect effect on increased post-secondary education attainment in states that have increased minimum attendance ages. Pittman, R. B., & Haughwout, P. (1987). Influence of high school size on dropout rate. Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis, 9(4), 337-343. âž· This study attempts to identify the specific factors that differ between schools of different sizes, and to determine if there is a correlation between school-size and dropout rates. The researchers identified the social climate, as well as the program diversity of the schools as being the two main differences. These categories were broken down even further into cohesion and participation rates, as well as number of course offerings and facilities available, respectively. The researchers use regression analysis and discover that the schools social climate typically degrades the larger the school, while the program diversity typically rises as enrollment rates grow. The researchers discover that while the social climate of the school has a large impact on dropout rates, the effect of program diversity on dropout rates is incredibly limited. School size is an indirect indicator; the larger the school, the more programs that are available, but the less positive the social climate. However, seeing as how social climate has a larger impact, the researchers believe smaller schools are less likely to have dropouts than large "mega" schools. Roderick, M. (1994). Grade retention and school dropout: Investigating the association. American Educational Research Journal, 31(4), 729-759. âž· This study concerned the effect grade retention policy has on a student's decision to dropout of school. The researcher focused mainly on data from elementary and middle school students, but the conclusions drawn from the statistics have implications for all grade levels. Early grade retention (before 7th grade) typically occurs because a teacher feels that a student isn't "ready" for the next grade, while late grade retention (7th and after) typically occurs because a student has failed a large proportion of their classes. Promoted students perform better and have higher self-esteem than retained students, but these are endogenous variables (i.e. they had bad grades, so they had to be retained, which lowered their self-esteem, which caused them to perform poorly). After controlling for post-retention grades and attendance rates, the dropout rate for retained students was still significantly higher for retained youth. The same held true even when family background and school performance were controlled for, meaning that retention does have an effect on dropouts. The study concludes that early grade retention has few long-term academic or social benefits, and late grade retention has almost no benefit, as dropout likelihood begins to skyrocket around the age of fourteen. Rumberger, R. W. (1983). Dropping out of high school: The influence of race, sex, and family background. American Educational Research Journal, 20(2), 199-220. âž· This study breaks down high school dropouts by race and gender, and attempts to determine which factors have the greatest impact on each groups' decision to drop out. Most females report marriage or pregnancy as the main reason, while Hispanics typically cite economic reasons. Whites and blacks typically cite lack of ability or interest. The actual statistics, however, seem to point to family background as the main influencer; the higher the education/income of the parents typically results in fewer dropouts. The researchers' simulations reveal that minorities who had the same background as whites were just as likely (or even less so) to dropout of high school. However, the higher the SES of the student, the less family background affects dropout rates. As well, higher levels of ability/self-esteem/aspirations seem to be negatively correlated with all groups' dropout rates. The researchers believe that the specific mix of factors is different for each sub-group, but almost all identified factors have some sort of impact on all groups. Rumberger, R. W. (1987). High school dropouts: A review of issues and evidence. Review of Educational Research, 57(2), 101-121. This study attempts to identify in totality the reasons why students drop out of high school in the US. He identifies multiple causes, groups them into seven categories (demographic, family-related, peer, academic/behavioral-related, institution-related, economic, and individual), and then attempts to rate their influence. He determines that several of these factors may not be causes of the behavior, but rather correlated responses to dropping out (i.e. a symptom of a deeper underlying problem, rather than the actual cause of dropping out). As well, he believe that there may be more than one "model" of a dropout, because not all students dropout for similar reasons. Suh-Ruu Ou. (2008). Do GED recipients differ from graduates and school dropouts? Urban Education, 43(1), 83-117. âž· This study attempts to define the differences between a GED recipient, a high school graduate, and a dropout in the aspects of income, life satisfaction, future optimism, symptoms of depression, substance use, health, and crime. The researcher highlights early on that the topic of income has been heavily discussed in other literature, and thus focuses more on the other aspects. The researchers state that higher education leads to economic success and social mobility for the individual, and enhanced economic growth and higher living standards for society as a whole. When the statistics are controlled for socio-demographic factors, early cognitive ability, and post-secondary education, the results indicate that there are significant differences between grads, GED's, and dropouts. In general, the grads are doing the best, followed by the GED recipients, and the dropouts are doing the worst. Specifically, income levels are significantly different for all three groups, as is life satisfaction. Crime rates and health levels are significant between Grads and GED recipients/dropouts, but not between GED's and Dropouts. Grads have lower rates for substance use, arrests, incarcerations, and births before age 20 than GED recipients. Tinto, V. (1982). Limits of theory and practice in student attrition. The Journal of Higher Education, 53(6), 687-700. This article deals specifically with the theory of student attrition from post-secondary education, but the insight that it lends can be extended to further academic settings. The author highlights the fact that one single model or formula that attempts to explain why any student drops out will never be effective. Rather, most effective formulas are designed to explain specific relationships between individuals and institutions that may account for particular types of dropout behaviors. The author comments that plenty of studies have been done to link financial factors and dropouts as a whole, but little attention has been paid to specific sub-groups of dropouts. By separating the entire group of dropouts by race, gender, age, and SES we can obtain useful statistics, which we can use to build more effective models. The lack of research presently available on these sub-groups is preventing institutions from fine-tuning programs designed to help at-risk students. However, the author makes a firm statement that any attempts to broaden the appeal of education at the price of diminishing its quality will only serve to drive away the more able and perceptive students (who will realize the diminished value). Warren, J. R., & Jenkins, K. N. (2005). High school exit examinations and high school dropout in texas and florida, 1971-2000. Sociology of Education, 78(2), 122-143. âž· This study attempted to ascertain whether or not high school exit exams have an effect on dropout rates, as well as an effect on the racial/SES inequalities in dropout rates, using data from Florida and Texas between the years of 1971-2001. The researchers found that the previous research in their field had numerous flaws, mainly due to the flaws in the data they had used, such as graduation rates and dropout rates. Some of these flaws included failure to account for migration in/out of the state, retention, or changes in counting policy for students in special education programs. The researchers believe these biases have led to underestimation of graduation rates in many states, as well as misrepresentation of dropout rates in states with high migration rates. The study found that whether they counted GED recipients as graduates or as dropouts, there was no link between exit exams and dropout rates, nor were there any inequalities created by exit exams. Other Articles of Merit Alexander, K. L., Natriello, G., & Pallas, A. M. (1985). For whom the school bell tolls: The impact of dropping out on cognitive performance. American Sociological Review, 50(3), 409-420. Colasanti, M., & Burke, M. (2007). Sanctions on driving privileges (2nd ed.). Denver, CO: Education Commission of the States Gaquin, D. A., & Ryan, M. M. (Eds.). (2007). Almanac of American Education, the (4th ed.). Lanham, MD: Bernan Press. Levin, H. (1972). The costs to the nation of inadequate education. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office. McNeal, R. B.,Jr. (1995). Extracurricular activities and high school dropouts. Sociology of Education, 68(1), 62-80. Thronberry, T. P., Moore, M., & Christenson, R. L. (1985). Effect of dropping out of high school on subsequent criminal behavior, the. Criminology, 23(1), 3. Tody, J., & Armor, D. J. (1992). Carrots or sticks for high school dropouts? Public Interest, 106(The Education Impasse), 76. See Also Dropping out ---- Outside Databases Note: some of these databases may require membership to access Academic Search Premier Blackwell-Synergy Education Policy Analysis Archives (EPAA) Education Resource Information Center (ERIC) National Bureau of Economic Research (NBER) National Center for Education Statistics (NCES) JSTOR See Also
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