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The Correspondence of the Early Naturalists
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The Correspondence of the Early Naturalists Though these scientists and naturalists of the 18th and early 19th centuries are well known and have biographies of their own, this article addresses the system of scientific correspondence that became popular in the early 18th century with Linnaeus. These correspondences or networks from scientist to scientist served on several different levels. They created friendships and trust among men that had never met, created a global exchange of knowledge of a quickly learning world and, most importantly, took the place of colleges that didn’t exist yet. All of this information about the world that was collected by these naturalists became a type of shared knowledge that was passed on from generation to generation that is being continuously built on. During this time, the exchange of letters between members of the scientific community, especially the naturalists, was a popular method of continuing to explore and learn about the world. However, one of the most crucial elements to ensure that knowledge could be shared and gathered was the idea that these networks weren’t one-sided streets. Each person at the end of the network gave and received information, whether it was new observations or actual specimen. A successful naturalist had connections all over the world, aiding them in their quest for knowledge and classification. These letters created a global learning community as well as gathering observations, the exchange of nature and the building of life-long friendships. Early Correspondence Linnaeus worked earlier in the eighteenth century. He received letters from around the world, from known colleagues as well as unfamiliar naturalists who became a contact and correspondence. This relationship is embodied between Alexander Gardener and Linnaeus. Gardener starts out telling Linnaeus that “I have read over and over again, with the greatest pleasure, your Fundamenta Botantica, and, if I am not deceived, have greatly increased my knowledge.” Though this letter comes off as being a type of flattery, the two men continue their correspondence, and Gardener offers Linnaeus his discoveries while Linnaeus offers his experience and knowledge. He even starts to send Linnaeus plants “the plant I sent you last year, under the name of Ellisia, has come under my careful examination, and I confess I can scarcely make it a Swertia." Despite this example, Linnaeus was known for not always being the best correspondence. There were many letters that went unanswered and Linnaeus failed to make lasting networks with them. However, since Linnaeus was one of the earliest naturalists, he was seen as the authority in this subject, so people were willing to help out with his research and hoped to receive some information in the future, whether by letter or when Linnaeus’ work became published. Correspondence as an equally profitable friendship A correspondence taking place around the same time of Linnaeus was that between John Bartram and Peter Collinson. These two men lived on opposite ends of the Earth, Collinson in England and Bartram in the Unites states so “they never met, since neither would leave his native land, yet it is doubtful that either ever had a more devoted friend." The vast quantity of information gathered by these two men shows the importance of letter writing and correspondence in the 18th century and what it can accomplish. Originally, their correspondence started because Collinson needed “to find someone in North America who would act as a collector for him in a less casual manner." Their initial letter exchange was a success with their letters ending up “continu with little interruption for thirty-five years." Their friendship and correspondence benefited both of them, since “whenever Bartram sent any seeds he was to send them with a good herbarium specimen of the plants…Collinson would get them identified by the “most knowing botanists” and then he would return one to Bartram." Each man offered up his own resources and pooled them together to gain a better understanding for the two of them. They soon moved past just plants and seeds, and “with the request for birds’ nests, Collinson added requests for those of wasps, bees, and hornets. He also desired fossils, and Bartram sent him some." This exchange of knowledge and goods could take place because Bartram became employed by Collinson. Their relationship and correspondence depended on the fact that both worked hard to help the other profit. Though they may not have known the exact hardships the other suffered, they knew that each was working with as much determination as possible. A shared obstacle they faced was the challenge of shipping delicate plants and animals across the ocean successfully. “Bartram’s first shipment of terrapins was unlucky, for those that did not die were stolen by the sailors." However, with time they improved their shipping and transporting system with less lost cargo. An example of “one of Collinson’s and Bartram’s best moments involves the introduction of Dionaea muscipula, Venus’s fly trap or, more famously, the Tipitwitchet sensitive." Bartram gains an eye for what is beautiful in nature with Collinson’s assistance and writes about his journeying in beautiful description “at this rural retirement were assembled a charming circle of mountain vegetable beauties." His enthusiasm for nature is infectious and inspired many of his readers to leave their homes and travel. Other naturalists had papers they shared with their peers, but Bartram shared his travels with anyone interested in reading them. He makes nature come to the reader when he states that “the towering mountains seem continually in motion as I pass along, pompously riding their superb crests toward the lofty skies, traversing the far distant horizon." Hoffman and Van Horne sum up Collinson and Bartram’s correspondent relationship beautifully when they say: “Without Bartram, Collinson would be known as a minor figure in the history of the Royal Society…because his range of contacts might not have grown so large and with such vigor. As for John Bartram, without Collinson he might have never have secured sufficient financial support to fully develop his talents as a collector and explorer." A major difference between these two men’s relationship and that of Linnaeus and his contacts is that Collinson and Bartram had an equal standing within their correspondence, with each receiving and giving equally. The Man in the Middle Joseph Banks was an English naturalist who worked in the middle of the 18th century and shows how important the development of these networks became to naturalists if they wanted to be successful in their profession. Banks was a very influential, powerful, and intelligent scientist who was able to cultivate numerous connections around the world. As Mackay puts it, “There was scarcely a part of the world unrepresented in the travels of the Banksian collectors. Every continent except Antarctica was scoured for plants, and the search even reached into Arctic regions.” Banks’ used his connections to early on gain collectors and correspondents, but once his fame grew, people would contact him. An example of this is “The German Paul Hert, who was physician to the Danish forts in West Africa” who “was one of a number who sent an unsolicited consignment of specimens to Banks in the hope of a stipend of some sort as a regular collector." This was one of the numerous benefits of this system of correspondence in which these early naturalists worked within. People could address famous naturalist for anything from information to a job and he would respond in some fashion. The whole system of contacts and correspondence depended on the idea that the well-known individuals were approachable and that the writers could expect an answer. Like the other naturalists, “many of these people were not personally known to him, but through newspaper reports and indirect contacts had his learned of his consuming passion for plants." This system of connections was a two-way street, and when Banks received his information and specimen, his contacts were often employed by him and received money or goods. Unlike some of the other naturalists, “what Banks did not produce to any significant extent were published works." His work was focused less on publishing and more on acquiring new specimen to help England, taking a more national approach “He generally showed enormous enthusiasm for the discovery and identification of new species of plants, whether useful or not. Nevertheless he believed that science, and botany in particular, could be applied in ways which would materially benefit Britain, and in this sense he was following directly in the Linnaean tradition." He often used his contacts to collect for the royal gardens at Kew for his work. Governor Arthur Philip, a correspondent of Banks, tells him that “the plants for the Kings garden are all on board, except two or three tubs coming from Parramatta, and in very high perfection, most of them have flower’d in the tubs." Philips is just one of many contacts that Banks had who gathered plants for him and the English gardens. Banks seems to have had a more diverse and larger correspondence circle than the naturalists in the past, since the interest in science is growing and the benefits of developing these networks become obvious. Correspondence at its Finest Perhaps one of the most well known naturalists was Charles Darwin. He had many people writing to him from all over the world, all looking for a way to increase their understanding of the world around them. He was a source of authority, experience and knowledge for newer naturalists, eager to learn if their discoveries had any value to the scientific world and classification. One of these new, young naturalists was Anton Dohrn from Germany. Darwin and Dohrn wrote back and forth “covering the period 1867-1882." Their relationship started by Dohrn sending Darwin a “paper on the morphology of the Arthropoda." Dohrn had never dreamed he would be in contact with Charles Darwin and his excitement and enthusiasm in these letters is understandable since Darwin is so approachable and knowledgeable. This approachability, specifically through letters, is crucial to the naturalists of this time period. The exchange of ideas needs to occur unhindered for the possible gain of knowledge that can benefit the general populace as well as the scientific community. So, though Darwin is well established at this point, he writes back to Dohrn since every contact is seen as valuable to a naturalist. Darwin becomes a teacher figure to Dohrn, telling him to “pray bear in mind that if a naturalist is once considered, though unjustly, as not quite trustworthy, it takes long years before he can recover his reputation." Dohrn, ever eager for any information Darwin can pass on, agrees and takes his caution to heart. However, Darwin’s gentle warning shows how naturalists depended on each other for their research, and if one of them wasn’t careful enough and forwarded poor information, it affected not only himself but all of his contacts and all of his contacts’ contacts. These correspondences created strong friendships because everyone needed to trust each other to work for the greater gain of knowledge. Dohrn and Darwin’s correspondence continued to the year of Darwin’s death, with the two meeting on separate occasions, Darwin assisting Dohrn monetarily, and as always, with the continuous sharing of knowledge. Another contact of Darwin’s is J. D. Hooker. Hooker and Darwin knew each other much longer than Darwin knew Dohrn, and they were both well-known naturalists in their time and today. This camaraderie between Darwin and Hooker is seen in their letters, from their addresses to their contents. J.D. Hooker addresses Darwin as “my dear old Friend” and Darwin often addresses Hooker as “my dear Hooker." They call each other by their first names, and often inquire about their family and health. Hooker tells Darwin “we are so glad to hear that you have some relief from your vomiting…&pray for a recurrence of Rheumatism which is the most convincing proof that nothing is organically wrong.” Also, the content of what they exchange in their letters is information about nature as well as other naturalists. “Unfortunately I could not be at the Linnaean last night to hear Scott’s paper, but I told Bentham of it, who, after it was read, spoke from the chair warmly in its praise." These papers were often shared among naturalists, like the one Dohrn sends to Darwin at the start of their relationship. Darwin being an expert on many types of species often receives papers, as he tells Hooker of another example “I write again chiefly to tell Oliver not to trouble himself to inform me on Hildebrand’s paper in Bot. Zeitug on Pulmonaria; as the author has sent me a copy." Darwin himself is a type of network, where he receives information and transfers it out to his connections. And of course, Darwin and Hooker exchanged plants and other nature with each other. An example of one of these many occasions is when Charles writes to J.D, asking “if you have Naravelia (the Clematis-like plant told me by Oliver) to try & propagate me a plant at once. Have you Clematis cirrhosa?” Though Darwin and Hooker’s relationship is often informal, they are still both aware of the importance of their research to themselves and others, and don’t hesitate to help the other through the gathering of materials. Charles Darwin and J.D. Hooker were lucky enough to know each other personally and their connection through letters and acquaintance was so strong that they felt comfortable asking the other for anything, be it supplies, plants, news or just friendship. In conclusion, the “shared curiosities can bridge differences in class, wealth, education, and even geography. It was an important characteristic of English intellectual life in the eighteenth century." Because of this, less experienced naturalists were able to address and learn from well-established individuals. These knowledgeable individuals took the place of colleges and became information centers where their fellow naturalists could write to them and always expect something in return. That was what made these relationships possible: the shared effort that went in to the correspondence. Each person in this correspondence system knew that, as long as they had information to offer, they were considered equals and they would likely receive something in return for their information. This system of correspondence made each letter valuable, where its contents contained unavailable or unknown and new information to the reader as well as to the world. These naturalists realized that the value of a letter from a correspondent was greater than just new discoveries; these letters often carried lifelong friendships across the world. These letters created a trading system where goods and money were exchanged but friendship and knowledge were valued. <references/> --Kdksobiech (talk) 04:20, 20 April 2010 (UTC)Katie Ksobiech See Also
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