Cuisine of Antarctica

Antarctica does not have a traditional cuisine due to the lack of permanent inhabitants, farms, or native wildlife. Food on research bases is imported and generally resembles what people eat in their home countries, with an emphasis on maximizing shelf life and nutritional value.
Overview
Compared to other major oceans, the Southern Ocean has relatively few fish species concentrated in a few families. The most species-rich family is the snailfish (Liparidae), the cod icefish (Nototheniidae) and the eelpouts (Zoarcidae). Together, snailfish, eelpouts, and notothenioids account for nearly 90% of the more than 320 described fish species in the Southern Ocean. Many undescribed species, particularly among snailfish, are also present. On the Antarctic continental shelf and upper slope, there are more than 220 species, with notothenioids dominating both in the number of species and biomass. Southern Ocean snailfish and eelpouts are generally found in deep waters, while icefish are common in shallower waters. Other families represented in the region include hagfish (Myxinidae), lamprey (Petromyzontidae), skates (Rajidae), pearlfish (Carapidae), morid cods (Moridae), eel cods (Muraenolepididae), gadid cods (Gadidae), horsefish (Congiopodidae), Antarctic sculpins (Bathylutichthyidae), triplefins (Tripterygiidae), and southern flounders (Achiropsettidae). Nearly 90% of fish species found south of the Antarctic Convergence are endemic to the region. These species can be caught using specialized fishing equipment; however, fishing activities are strictly regulated under the Convention for the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources (CCAMLR) to protect the ecosystem.
The rocky shores of mainland Antarctica and its offshore islands provide nesting space for over 100 million birds every spring. These birds include species such as albatrosses, petrels, skuas, gulls, and terns. The South Georgia pipit is endemic to South Georgia and some smaller surrounding islands. Ducks, including the South Georgia pintail and Eaton's pintail, inhabit South Georgia, Kerguelen, and Crozet. The flightless penguins are almost entirely located in the Southern Hemisphere, with the exception of the equatorial Galapagos penguin. The greatest concentration of penguins is found on and around Antarctica. Four of the eighteen penguin species live and breed on the mainland and its close offshore islands, while another four species live on subantarctic islands. Emperor penguins are known for their four overlapping layers of feathers, which help to keep them warm, and a countercurrent heat exchange system that reduces heat loss by cooling blood as it reaches extremities like their feet. Emperor penguins are also the only Antarctic animals that breed during the winter. Mainland species in Antarctica are legally protected from hunting and cannot be consumed. The Antarctic Treaty System, which governs the region, seeks to safeguard the environment and wildlife, with violations subject to penalties such as fines, imprisonment, or removal from Antarctica. Under the 1959 Antarctic Treaty, individuals accused of a crime in Antarctica are subject to the legal jurisdiction and penalties of their home country.
Six pinniped species inhabit Antarctica. The largest, the southern elephant seal (Mirounga leonina), can reach up to while females of the smallest, the Antarctic fur seal (Arctophoca gazella), reach only . These two species live north of the sea ice and breed in harems on beaches. The other four species live on the sea ice. Crabeater seals (Lobodon carcinophagus) and Weddell seals (Leptonychotes weddellii) form breeding colonies, whereas leopard seals (Hydrurga leptonyx) and Ross seals (Ommatophoca rossii) live solitary lives. Although these species hunt underwater, they breed on land or ice and spend significant time there, as they have no terrestrial predators. The four species that inhabit sea ice are estimated to make up 50% of the total biomass of the world's seals. Crabeater seals have a population of around 15 million, making them one of the most numerous large animals on the planet. The New Zealand sea lion (Phocarctos hookeri), one of the rarest and most localized pinnipeds, breeds almost exclusively on the subantarctic Auckland Islands, although it historically had a wider range. Among permanent mammalian residents, Weddell seals live the furthest south. There are ten cetacean species found in the Southern Ocean: six baleen whales and four toothed whales. The largest of these, the blue whale (Balaenoptera musculus), grows to long and weighs 84 tonnes. Many cetacean species are migratory and travel to tropical waters during the Antarctic winter. Orcas, which do not migrate, nonetheless regularly travel to warmer waters, possibly to relieve the stress the temperature has on their skin.
Most terrestrial invertebrates are restricted to the subantarctic islands. Although species diversity is low, those that inhabit Antarctica often have high population densities. In extreme areas of the mainland, such as the cold deserts, food webs can be limited to three nematode species, only one of which is a predator. Several lakes support various species of planktonic crustaceans. Terrestrial earthworms and molluscs, along with micro-invertebrates such as nematodes, tardigrades, and rotifers, are also found. Species of insects and mites identified in recent research from Antarctica include Belgica albipes, Belgica antarctica, and Siphlopteryx antarctica. Springtail species recorded include Antarcticinella monoculata, Cryptopygus antarcticus, Desoria klovstadi, Friesea grisea, Gomphiocephalus hodgsoni, Gressittacantha terranova, and Cryptopygus nivicolus. Mite species identified include Coccorhagidia keithi, Nanorchestes antarcticus, Stereotydeus mollis, and Tydeus setsukoae.
Antarctic krill (Euphausia superba) are extremely abundant, forming large swarms that can turn the water red, remaining deep during the day and rising at night to feed on plankton; during winter, they can shrink to a juvenile stage by consuming their own body tissue when food is scarce. Glyptonotus antarcticus and Ceratoserolis trilobitoides are large benthic isopods that demonstrate polar gigantism, with many benthic crustaceans breeding year-round and raising their young in brood pouches. Antarctic amphipods are diverse and abundant, feeding on algae and other animals in soft sediments, with some species, such as epimeriids, growing to large sizes. King crabs and other crab species are found in deep Antarctic waters and, although once thought to be invaders, are now understood to be native; however, many Antarctic marine animals remain highly vulnerable to even small temperature changes. Slow-moving sea spiders are common in Antarctic waters, sometimes growing up to in leg span, and they feed on corals, sponges, and bryozoans along the seabed.
Many aquatic mollusks are present in Antarctica. Bivalves such as Adamussium colbecki move around on the seafloor, while others such as Laternula elliptica live in burrows filtering the water above. There are around 70 cephalopod species in the Southern Ocean, the largest of which is the colossal squid (Mesonychoteuthis hamiltoni), which at up to is among the largest invertebrates in the world. Squid make up most of the diet of some animals, such as gray-headed albatrosses and sperm whales, and the warty squid (Moroteuthis ingens) is one of the subantarctic's most preyed upon species by vertebrates. Other species, such as those from the genus Abatus, also inhabit the Southern Ocean, burrowing through sediment to consume nutrients. Several species of brittle stars and starfish, including Odontaster validus and Labidiaster annulatus, are found in Antarctic waters and play key ecological roles. Two species of salps, Salpa thompsoni and Ihlea racovitzai, are common, with the former found in ice-free areas and the latter near ice. These salps are low in nutritional value and are primarily consumed by fish, with larger animals eating them only when other food is scarce. Marine worms, such as Parborlasia corrugata and Eulagisca gigantea, are also present, with the latter exemplifying Polar gigantism. Like several other marine species of the region, Antarctic sponges are long-lived and sensitive to environmental changes, functioning as indicators of ecosystem health. The largest species, Anoxycalyx joubini, can grow up to in height and provides habitat for various smaller organisms. Long-term studies of this sponge suggest it could live for up to 15,000 years, although recent observations show variable growth rates, with some individuals growing significantly in just a few years.
Fungal diversity in Antarctica is lower compared to other regions, with around 1,150 identified species. Lichens account for 400 of these species, while 750 are non-lichenized, Antarctica also hosts about 400 lichen species, which form symbiotic relationships with plants and fungi.
The greatest plant diversity in Antarctica is found on the western edge of the Antarctic Peninsula. Moss and lichen, well-adapted to the environment, can be found in rocks throughout the continent. The subantarctic islands provide a more favorable environment for plant growth than the mainland. Human activities, particularly whaling and sealing, have allowed many introduced species to establish themselves on the islands, with some thriving. Antarctica's bryophytes include around 100 species of mosses and approximately 25 species of liverworts. The Mount Melbourne fumarole hosts the only Antarctic population of Campylopus pyriformis, a species typically found in Europe and South Africa.
The food provided to temporary inhabitants of Antarctica mainly consists of cuisine from their home countries. Territorial claims in Antarctica are suspended under the Antarctic Treaty, but countries with research bases, such as Spain, China, India, Italy, Japan, Pakistan, Russia, South Africa, Poland, and the United States, export their national cuisines to their respective government-constructed research facilities.
History
The history of food in Antarctica has been shaped by the continent's harsh environment and the need for sustenance during expeditions. Early explorers depended on provisions brought from their home countries, supplemented by limited resources from the Southern Ocean, and often faced challenges such as scurvy and starvation. Today, research stations benefit from more diverse and palatable meals, including vegetables grown in greenhouses and a range of imported goods.
The was among the first ships involved in Antarctic exploration and carried food supplies such as biscuits, York hams, sheep tongues, and 25 cases of whisky. After the ship sank and the crew became stranded, they relied heavily on hunting and foraging, consuming penguins, seals, seaweed, and occasionally the stomach contents of a sea leopard. They also used pemmican, a mixture of dried beef and fat, to prepare a stew known as hoosh by combining it with crushed biscuits and melted snow.
During the Heroic Age of Antarctic Exploration, which spanned from the late 19th century to just after World War I, hunger was a shared challenge for all expeditions. Diaries and letters often mentioned food, with hoosh being a common description. Early explorers dealt with scurvy and, in some instances, starvation. Cookbooks brought on these expeditions were greatly valued. Due to food shortages, explorers depended on limited rations and supplemented their meals by hunting seals and penguins.
In extreme cases, explorers resorted to consuming their pack animals, such as sled dogs and ponies, to reduce their load and obtain necessary sustenance. Some stations have successfully grown their own vegetables, providing a fresh source of nutrients, while seafood remains popular and is prepared in various ways.
Cuisine
Bannock
A bannock is a variety of flatbread or quick bread made from flour, typically round, and common in Scotland and other parts of Britain and Ireland. Usually cut into sections before serving, bannocks are often chosen for Antarctic expeditions because their dry components last a long time without refrigeration, ease of preparation with minimal equipment, and high caloric content.
Hoosh
Hoosh, also known as hooch, is a type of stew made by combining sledging biscuits, pemmican, and water. This dish was common for early 20th-century Antarctic expeditions, including those led by Robert Falcon Scott (1910-1913) and Ernest Shackleton (1914-1916).
Pemmican
Pemmican is a mixture of tallow, dried meat, and sometimes dried berries. It is a calorie-rich food that can be used in prepared meals or eaten raw. Historically, it was an important part of indigenous cuisine in certain parts of North America and is still prepared today. The meat is rich in fats and proteins, which help the body generate heat without requiring additional energy. Pemmican was widely adopted by Europeans in the fur trade and later by Arctic and Antarctic explorers. Members of Ernest Shackleton's 1914-1916 Antarctic expedition resorted to eating dog pemmican when they were stranded on ice during the Antarctic summer.
Sledging biscuits
Sledging biscuits are a durable, long-lasting biscuits are made from flour, salt, butter, water, and baking soda. They are favored on Antarctic expeditions due to their high energy content.

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